1. INTRODUCTION
The original German doctrine regarding the employment of German Air Force flak artillery in the
field has steadily been undergoing modification. German manuals formerly described the
responsibility of flak in the field as primarily, and almost exclusively, antiaircraft
defense; the engagement of ground targets was regarded as secondary, and only to be undertaken
in an emergency. Although the older manuals admitted the possibility of using light flak to
reinforce the fire of heavy infantry weapons, and of using heavy flak to supplement antitank
and other artillery, such employment was described as exceptional. There was nothing to
suggest, for example, the now extensive use of the 88-mm antiaircraft gun in an
antitank role.
The transition from the defensive doctrine of the earlier manuals to the more aggressive
modern conception seems to date from the introduction of the Flak Corps—units of which
first appeared during the Battle of France. The Flak Corps was created to perform the tasks
described in the following enemy notes.
The Flak Corps is a wartime organization, and constitutes an operational reserve of the
commander in chief of the German Air Force. It combines great mobility with heavy fire
power. It can be employed in conjunction with spearheads composed of armored and
motorized forces, and with nonmotorized troops in forcing river crossings and attacking
fortified positions. It can also be deployed as highly mobile artillery to support tank
attacks.
The Flak Corps can take part in antitank defense on a broad front, and can be employed
in ground engagements at strongly contested points. Its capabilities are tremendous in
antiaircraft defense, because its great mobility enables it to rush flak concentrations
to strategically important points, and to transfer flak strength from one area to
another, as required.
It is also responsible for protecting forward ground organizations of the German Air Force.
As these notes show, flak in the field is now intended to serve as a powerful and highly mobile
striking force. The emphasis laid on its employment in the ground role, and in an offensive
capacity in conjunction with spearhead formations, is most important. Experience has
verified that these principles are actively practiced in the field.
2. HEAVY FLAK
a. General
In operations with the field army, the 88-mm gun, as a result of its great
mobility, has become almost the universal weapon of heavy flak. Larger calibers are
usually encountered only in areas where the defense is static.
The heavy flak battery consists either of four or six guns (usually 88's), with two
light guns (20-mm) for close protection. Six-gun batteries are becoming
increasingly common. In theory the heavy battery consists of two platoons, but in
practice it is rarely divided in this manner. All the guns are generally fitted with
shields, to protect the detachments against small-arms fire, and with two sights—a
telescopic sight for the direct engagement of ground targets, and a panoramic sight for
indirect laying. In the interests of mobility, the fire-control equipment is often left
behind. In addition to time-fuze high-explosive ammunition, armor-piercing and
percussion-fuze high-explosive ammunition is normally carried. To avoid the muzzle flashes
which, at night, readily give away the gun positions, the Germans now make widespread use
of a flashless propellant.
The 88-mm gun can be put into action in about 2 minutes. If necessary, it can be fired
from its mount, but against ground targets only.1 Since the normal mount is
conspicuous because of its height, the gun is extremely vulnerable to artillery fire. Whenever
possible, therefore, the gun is dug in so that only the barrel appears over the top of
the emplacement. (Actually, the time factor and the frequent moves do not always permit
the Germans to devise effective concealment.) Realizing that destruction of hostile
observation posts constitutes an indirect method of protecting their heavy flak guns, the
Germans try to accomplish this at every opportunity.
The 88-mm guns can open fire on armored vehicles at 2,500 yards with fair prospect of
success, but are most effective at ranges of about 1,000 to 1,500 yards. They may fire at
ranges of as much as 4,000 yards, if other and more inviting targets are not available. With
the aid of a forward observation post, 88's sometimes engage such targets as troop
concentrations at ranges of as much as 6,000 yards.2 The following are examples of
the penetration performance with the 88-mm Flak 36, the most common model
of this gun:
Range (yards) |
Thickness of armor |
30° angle of impact |
Perpendicular (no angle of impact) |
500 | 110 mm (4.33 in) | 129 mm (5.07 in). |
1,000 | 101 mm (3.97 in) | 119 mm (4.68 in). |
1,500 | 92 mm (3.62 in) | 110 mm (4.33 in). |
2,000 | 84 mm (3.30 in) | 100 mm (3.93 in). |
It is estimated that the following figures are correct for the 88-mm Flak 41:
Range (yards) |
Thickness of armor |
30° angle of impact |
Perpendicular (no angle of impact) |
500 | 150 mm (5.91 in) | 175 mm (6.89 in). |
1,000 | 140 mm (5.51 in) | 164 mm (6.46 in). |
1,500 | 130 mm (5.12 in) | 153 mm (6.02 in). |
2,000 | 121 mm (4.76 in) | 142 mm (5.59 in). |
b. Employment in Rear Areas
In rear areas heavy flak has the normal task of providing antiaircraft protection for ports, airfields,
dumps, headquarters, and points of importance on lines of communication. Predictors and/or auxiliary
predictors are employed, and mobile radio-location equipment may also be allotted. Although flak
units in rear areas primarily have the task of providing antiaircraft protection, even these units
are normally provided with armor-piercing and percussion-fuze high-explosive ammunition, and
therefore can operate against any hostile troops or armored vehicles which may break through. The
heavy flak's degree of preparedness to meet such attacks naturally depends on the distance between the
guns and the front.
c. Employment in Forward Areas
It is in the employment of heavy flak batteries attached to the Army, for operations in forward areas,
that current German methods depart most noticeably from the doctrine expressed in earlier manuals.
Formerly, German doctrine outlined a primary antiaircraft role, a secondary antitank role, and, under
exceptional circumstances, employment in a field-artillery role. It may be said that the antitank role
now has assumed virtual priority, for experience has shown that the 88-mm gun has
become an indispensable complement to the German Army's antitank artillery. A certain proportion
of heavy batteries in forward areas is still deployed in an antiaircraft role, chiefly to protect
forward airfields, and during periods of inactivity or preparation the antiaircraft role still
predominates. For example, an assembly prior to an attack will usually be protected by heavy
guns, and under these conditions the ground role is assumed only in the event that the Germans are
subjected to a surprise attack. However, once battle is joined, whether in attack or defense (and
especially when armored forces are involved), the heavy flak guns are usually employed against
ground targets only, and the antiaircraft role becomes the exception. If necessary, even guns
originally deployed to give antiaircraft protection to forward airfields are sometimes pressed
into service as antitank weapons.
The employment of heavy flak batteries naturally varies considerably, depending on the terrain and
the nature of the fighting. In open country the 88-mm gun's long range gives it a
distinct advantage as an antitank weapon. In North Africa, where so often there was no
well-defined "line," heavy flak batteries often served as the nucleus of defensive "hedgehogs." In
an advance the primary function of the batteries usually has been to provide antitank protection
during the movement of German armored vehicles. The 88's have also been known to accompany tanks
in an assault-gun role. Although the battery is the normal fire unit, large numbers of 88-mm guns
have occasionally been employed under one command when the situation has required that maximum antitank
strength be concentrated at a single point.
A striking example of the value of heavy flak in defense is afforded by the final phases of the
Tunisian campaign, in which heavy flak units frequently provided the backbone of German resistance
to the Allied advance. For this purpose several units were formed into mobile battle groups, a
procedure which had been resorted to on previous occasions, and which presumably is dictated by
the stress of circumstances. These flak battle groups are purely temporary units, formed for a
specific purpose. They consist of a number of platoons, usually with two heavy and three light
guns each, and may be employed either alone or in combination with other arms. They are used
both in defense and in attack. Since they are mobile striking forces, there is always a possibility
that they will be used by the Germans in attempts to repel landings on the European continent. They
would afford a means of rapid counterattack in threatened sectors. The employment of these temporary
units, which has become increasingly common, demonstrates the flexibility of flak organization in
the field and the extent to which the Germans use heavy flak to complement antitank artillery.
The employment of a heavy flak battery is naturally governed by the type of operation that is
being undertaken by the Army unit to which it is attached. Although the lessons learned from
desert warfare are not necessarily applicable to other theaters, the activity of a heavy flak
battery during the early stages of the German counteroffensive in Cyrenaica in May 1942
affords some very good tactical illustrations. During this action the battery accompanied the
Army unit to which it was attached, and provided protection both against air attacks and
tank attacks. The ground role predominated. Not only were tank engagements fought by day, but at
night the battery was deployed in an antitank role to protect its "parent" Army unit. The battery
was continually on the move during the day. More than once it detached some of its guns to
strengthen another Army unit, and at other times it, in turn, was given added strength. When
opposition was expected, the battery took up an antitank siting, generally on high ground and
facing the probable line of attack. The choice of this position was not hard-and-fast. The
battery moved to a different position when reconnaissance had established the location and
course of the hostile tanks. When in position, the battery often had to site its guns so that
they faced in two directions, because of uncertainty as to the exact line of attack.
3. LIGHT FLAK
a. General
Light flak units operating in the field are generally equipped with 20-mm guns (single-
or four-barreled), sometimes with 37-mm (1.45 in.) guns, and once in a
great while with 50-mm (1.97 in.) guns. A light battery normally
consists of four platoons of 20-mm guns, or three platoons of the larger
caliber light guns, with three guns to each platoon.
Light flak guns are especially useful in combatting surprise attacks, because of the rapidity with
which these pieces can be put into action. The 20-mm Flak 30, for example, can
be put into action in about half a minute, and in extreme emergencies all light flak guns
can be fired (although with a limited traverse) from their mounts. In addition, it is known that
self-propelled models of the 20-mm and 37-mm calibers exist and can
engage both air and ground targets. Like the heavy guns, the light guns in the field are usually
fitted with shields for protection against small-arms fire. They are also fitted with flak sights
and/or telescopic or linear sights, and carry armor-piercing ammunition in addition to
percussion-fuze high-explosive ammunition. Light flak guns may engage ground targets,
especially "soft-skinned" vehicles, at ranges of as much as 800 yards, but are most
effective at ranges up to about 300 yards. The following are examples of the penetration
performance of the 20-mm Flak 30 firing armor-piercing projectiles:
Range (yards) |
Thickness of armor |
30° angle of impact |
Perpendicular |
100 | 31 mm (1.22 in) | 48 mm (1.89 in). |
200 | 29 mm (1.14 in) | 44 mm (1.73 in). |
300 | 27 mm (1.06 in) | 41 mm (1.61 in). |
400 | 25 mm (0.98 in) | 38 mm (1.50 in). |
b. Employment in Rear Areas
In rear areas light flak batteries have the normal task of giving antiaircraft protection to
such vital points as airfields, bridges, railroad stations and junctions, headquarters, and
depots. For this purpose batteries are generally deployed as a whole, with the guns sited by
platoons. Although the antiaircraft role predominates, these batteries constitute an important
element in the ground defense plan for the vital rear points they are protecting, and are
prepared to engage any armored or other forces which may succeed in penetrating to that depth.
c. Employment in Forward Areas
Light batteries attached to Army units in forward areas may also operate as a whole, but platoons
are usually detached to perform special tasks.
On the march, platoons are generally spaced at intervals along the column, or are sited at
particularly vulnerable points along the route—such as bridges, defiles, or crossroads—and
subsequently "leapfrog" forward. Their principal task is to protect the column against attack
by low-flying aircraft; their secondary task is to engage ground forces.
In battle light flak units afford protection for headquarters, field artillery concentrations, infantry
concentrations, engineer units, motor parks, and so on. Also, it is sometimes considered
necessary to assign a light platoon (three guns) to a heavy flak battery engaged in
antitank work—presumably because, under certain circumstances, the two light guns
belonging to the two batteries do not afford enough protection. In all these
tasks the antiaircraft role predominates, but engagement of personnel and armored vehicles
is also regarded as highly important and often takes place. Experience has shown that during tank
attacks, light guns, as well as heavy guns, have ignored air targets and have concentrated
on hostile armored vehicles, leaving German ground units to defend themselves against air
attack by means of rifle and light machine-gun fire. (As previous issues of the Intelligence
Bulletin have explained, German Army training stresses the importance of small-arms fire
in defense against low-flying aircraft.)
It will be seen that whereas heavy flak—which is well suited to combat ground targets, partly
because of its penetration performance—is now being given wide tactical employment in
a ground role, light flak with the Army still clings pretty much to the principles outlined
in German pre-war manuals. Although the capability of light flak in a ground role is always
something to take into account, this type of employment seems to be the exception, rather
than the rule.
NOTE.—This section has dealt solely with German Air Force flak. There are also (1) Army
flak (Heeresflak) units, which include "mixed" battalions (containing both heavy and
light batteries) as part of the artillery, and (2) light companies (Fla), which have
light guns only, as part of the infantry. These other types are not numerous, however. As a
rule, they are GHQ troops, and are attached to army units in much the same way that German
Air Force flak units are attached. Recent enemy documents show that an Army flak
battalion, consisting of two heavy batteries and one light battery, is now included in the
tables of organization of armored and motorized divisions.
1 Against ground targets on the Eastern Front, the Germans have used a
self-propelled
88-mm gun, called the "Ferdinand." See
Intelligence
Bulletin, Vol. II. No. 1, p. 1.
2 The telescopic sight is graduated up to 10,340 yards, and theoretically it
would be possible to engage targets up to this range. In indirect fire, when
the panoramic sight is used, the maximum range of the 88-mm Flak 36 is
11,445 yards with time-fuze high-explosive ammunition, and 16,132 yards
with percussion-fuze high-explosive ammunition.
Corresponding maximum ranges with the 88-mm Flak 41 are:
| |
Yards |
Direct fire (with telescopic sight) | | 11,770 |
Indirect fire (with panoramic sight): | | |
Using time-fuze HE | | 13,561 |
Using percussion-fuze HE | | 22,091 |